Diabetes type II

Freely translated from Läkemedelsboken 2011-2012, published by Läkemedelsverket (the Swedish Medical Products Agency), page 584.


"In Diabetes type II there is a markedly decreased sensitivity to insulin in combination with gradually declining beta-cell function. The insulin resistance is mainly manifested by a lowered glucose uptake in muscles and increased gluconeogenesis in the liver. 


The metabolic syndrome encompasses obesity, hypertension, type-2 diabetes (lowered glucose tolerance), dyslipidemia and raised triglycerid levels and aterogenic changed LDL-particles.


Smoking contributes to a worsened peripheral insulin sensitivity.


2/3 of people with diabetes type 2 pass away in some form of cardio-vascular disease.


The metabolic disturbances tend to get worse over time. This means that patients that initially have coped with dietary restrictions, later need medication or insulin. Today over 50% of patients who suffered from type 2 diabetes for 10 years or more are treated with insulin.
"


The basis for all diabetes treatment is the diet, but here is a mind map of the medications you can take to treat diabetes type 2.

Reproduction

Added a new page on reproduction. It's from a community college in Arizona and gives a nice quick overview of the reproductive system. Good for starters!

Estrella Mountain Community College

Thyreotoxicosis

The questions I put up on the blog are all taken from previous pre-clinical tests (preklin) given at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden. This blog seems to have turned in to my study buddy at the moment.

Another practice exam question.


"Explain the etiology behind thyrotoxicosis. Describe the regulation of the thyroid hormones' synthesis and release. Explain why the heart speeds up in thyrotoxicosis. (6 points)"


Thyrotoxicosis can have different causes. Inflammation of the thyroid gland because of a virus or bacterial infection will give a rise in secretion of thyroid hormone, but it will not increase production. You can also get thyrotoxicosis by overdosing och thyroid medicine. Another case is auto-immune reaction as in Grave's disease. Here the body produces antibodies (TRAK i Swedish) against the Thyroid Stimulating Hormone Receptor. The antibodies will fasten on the receptor and stimulate it. That will give an increase in production and release of T3 and T4.

The release of Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary gland is stimulated by Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone (TRH) that is secreted from the hypothalamus in response to stress, cold, excercise, adrenal activity.

The heart speeds up in response to an increased expression of beta-receptors on the heart muscle cells. T3 stimulates the recruitment of them to the cell membrane.

Thyrotoxicosis

Sex hormones and AAS

In both sexes it is the Gonadotrope Releasing Hormone GnRH that is released from hypothalamus that stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete Follicle Stimulating Hormone and Lutenizing Hormone. So far males and females are identical. Here come the differences.

In men LH stimulates the Leydig Cells in the testes to produce testosterone that is needed for sperm production. FSH stimulates the Sertoli Cells and thereby increases sperm production. The testosterone inhibits GnRH and so does AAS (Anabolic-Androgen Steroids). If you add too much AAS it will inhibit the natural production of LH and FSH which leads to loss of sperm production (reversible).

In women FSH stimulates the maturation of the follicles in the ovary. The follicle then produces estradiol that inhibit FSH and stimulates LH. That will bring about a LH peak which stimulates oocyte maturation and ovulation. AAS of course interferes with the normal menstrual cycle and gives females certain male characteristics.

Endocrinology

Exam question: Describe and compare hormonal regulation of growth in a fetus, a child and during puberty. Also describe different conditions that give over or under production of different hormones that affect the developing child's height.

OMG. Need to brush up on that... It was quite hard to find info on the Normal state. Here is the best I could find so far!

http://www.endotext.org/